Compositions and methods for the control of nematodes and soil borne diseases

ABSTRACT

The instant invention relates to compositions and methods for the control of nematodes and soil borne diseases using compositions comprising high terpene containing oils and one or more surfactants. The invention also relates to methods for increasing the wetted soil volume available for water utilization by plant roots using the disclosed compositions.

The instant application is a continuation-in-part of co-pending U.S.application Ser. No. 12/449,358 which is a national stage applicationbased on PCT/US2008/01530 filed Feb. 6, 2008, which claims priority toU.S. Provisional Application 60/899,625 filed Feb. 6, 2007, thedisclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein intheir entireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The instant invention relates to compositions and methods for thecontrol of nematodes and soil borne diseases using compositionscomprising high terpene containing oils and one or more surfactants. Theinvention also relates to methods for increasing the wetted soil volumeavailable for water utilization by plant roots using the disclosedcompositions. All references, patents and printed publications citedherein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND

“Roundworms” or “nematodes” (phylum Nematoda) are the most diversephylum of pseudocoelomates, and one of the most diverse of all animals.Over 80,000 species have been described, of which over 15,000 areparasitic. It has been estimated that the total number of described andundescribed roundworms might be more than 500,000. Unlike cnidarians orflatworms, roundworms have a digestive system that is like a tube atboth ends.

Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every ecological nichefrom marine to fresh water, from the polar regions to the tropics, aswell as the highest to the lowest of elevations. They are ubiquitous infreshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments, where they oftenoutnumber other animals in both individual and species counts, and arefound in locations as diverse as Antarctica and oceanic trenches. Theyrepresent, for example, 90% of all life on the seafloor of the Earth.The many parasitic forms include pathogens in most plants and animals(including humans.) Depending on the species, a nematode may bebeneficial or detrimental to plant health.

From an agricultural perspective, there are two categories of nematode:predatory ones, which will kill garden pests like cutworms; and pestnematodes, like the root-knot nematode, which attack plants.

Predatory nematodes can be purchased as an organic form of pest control.

Rotations of plants with nematode-resistant species or varieties is onemeans of managing parasitic nematode infestations. For example,marigolds, grown over one or more seasons (the effective is cumulative),can be used to control nematodes. Another is treatment with naturalantagonists such as the fungus Gliocladium roseum. Chitosan is a naturalbiocontrol that elicits plant defense responses to destroy parasiticcyst nematodes on roots of sobyean, corn, sugar beets, potatoes andtomatoes without harming beneficial nematodes in the soil.

Nematicides are agents that may be used to kill or control nematodes.One common nematicide is obtained from neem cake, the residue obtainedafter cold-pressing the fruit and kernels of the neem tree. Known byseveral names in the world, the tree has been cultivated in India sinceancient times and is now widely distributed throughout the world.Nematophagous fungi, a type of carnivorous fungi, can be also be usefulin controlling nematodes, Paecilomyces is one example.

Prior to 1985, the persistent halocarbon DBCP was a widely usednematicide and soil fumigant. However, it was banned from use afterbeing linked to sterility among male farm workers. Aside from chemicals,soil steaming can be used to kill nematodes. Super-heated steam may beinduced into the soil which causes almost all organic material todeteriorate.

In spite of attempts to control nematodes and other soil borne diseases,there remains a significant unmet need for effective nematicidal andsoil borne disease controlling compositions to control and preventunwanted nematode pests and other soil borne diseases.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed, in certain embodiments, to methods ofkilling plant pests that are present in soil. The target pests are thecausative agents of one or more soil borne diseases that affect plants.In certain preferred embodiments, the pests include but are not limitedto Nematodes, Phytophthora, Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia,Erwinia and Verticillium. The methods of the invention involve the stepof selecting soil in need of treatment and applying an effective amountof a composition comprising one or more surfactants and one or more highterpene containing oils to the soil in need of treatment to thereby killthe plant pests in the soil that has been selected for treatment.

In certain embodiments, the selection of soil step comprises identifyingsoil containing any one of the target pests present in an amountsufficient to harm or reduce the growth of a plant growing in the soil.In certain embodiments, the selection of soil step comprises identifyingsoil containing any one of said pests present in an amount sufficient toreduce the yield of a plant growing in the soil.

In certain embodiments, the identification of soil in need of treatmentis done by determining, based on a prior planting in the soil, that anyone of said pests are present in the soil in an amount sufficient toharm plants growing in the soil or reduce the yield or the growth ofplants grown in said soil.

In certain preferred embodiments, the plant pest to be killed in thesoil is Phytophthora. In certain preferred embodiments, the plant pestto be killed in the soil is root-knot nematode.

In certain embodiments, the invention is directed to methods forincreasing wetted soil volume such that there is an increased amount ofwater available for uptake by plant roots growing in the soil. Incertain embodiments, the method comprises selecting soil in need oftreatment and applying an effective amount of a composition comprisingone or more surfactants and one or more high terpene based oils to thesoil in need of treatment to thereby increase wetted soil volume suchthat there is an increased amount of water available for water uptake byplant roots growing in the soil compared to untreated soil.

In certain embodiments, the lateral movement of water in treated soil isincreased compared to the lateral movement of water in soil that has notbeen subjected to treatment.

In certain embodiments, the treatment increases the amount of wateravailable to a plant growing in said soil by increasing the amount ofwater in the root zone of the plant compared to soil that has not beensubjected to the treatment.

In certain embodiments, the treated soil has at least 33% more wettedsoil volume available for water uptake by the plant roots compared tountreated soil. In certain embodiments, the treated soil has at least25% more wetted soil volume available for water uptake by the plantroots compared to untreated soil.

In certain embodiments, the invention is directed to methods comprisingthe steps of providing a concentrate comprising one or more surfactantsand one or more high terpene containing oils; injecting said concentrateinto a drip irrigation system to thereby dilute said concentrate; andapplying said diluted concentrate to soil via said drip irrigationsystem. In certain embodiments, the concentrate is applied at a rate ofbetween about 2 quarts to about 5 gallons per acre. In certainembodiments, injectors are used either at a central point of theirrigation system on the farm, or when a specific block has to receive atreatment, growers may use localized injectors at the block. Theinjectors at the central point where the pump is, are mostly powered byelectricity, whereas the injectors that do not have electricity at thesite may use the pressure of a small amount of water that is expelledfrom the system to power them. The injectors may be combined with a tankto hold the product. Growers may have the injector systems on wheelsthat can be pulled around to wherever it is needed in a block. Thisreduces costs by having one system for many sites.

In certain embodiments, the invention is directed to drip irrigationsystems wherein the water in said drip irrigation system comprises oneor more surfactants and one or more high terpene containing oils. Incertain embodiments, the water in said drip irrigation system isdelivered directly to the soil and is not applied directly to the plantor any part of the plant. In certain embodiments the water is deliveredto soil prior to planting. In certain embodiments, the water isdelivered to soil after planting. In certain embodiments, the plantingcomprises transgenic plants. In certain embodiments, the plantingcomprises non-transgenic plants.

In certain embodiments, the invention is directed to methods ofincreasing uniformity of water delivery by the drippers in a dripirrigation system comprising the steps of providing a concentratecomprising one or more surfactants and one or more high terpenecontaining oils; injecting said concentrate into a drip irrigationsystem to thereby dilute said concentrate; applying said dilutedconcentrate to soil via said drip irrigation system wherein theuniformity of water delivery in said drip irrigation system is increasedcompared to the water delivery of the drip irrigation system prior totreatment with the concentrate.

In certain embodiments, the invention is directed to methods ofdemineralizing a drip irrigation system comprising the steps ofproviding a concentrate comprising one or more surfactants and one ormore high terpene containing oils; injecting said concentrate into adrip irrigation system to thereby dilute said concentrate; applying saiddiluted concentrate to soil via said drip irrigation system wherein thedrip irrigation system contains less mineral deposit or scale comparedto the drip irrigation system prior to treatment with the concentrate.The methods of the invention improve the water use efficiency of dripirrigation systems.

In certain preferred embodiments, the volume of water delivered byindividual drippers in the drip irrigation system prior to treatmentwith said concentrates of the invention varies by at least 10% or atleast 20% or at least 30% or at least 35% when said drippers arecompared to each other.

In certain embodiments, the compositions of the invention are applieddirectly to the soil and not to the plant or any part of the plant. Incertain preferred embodiments, the compositions of the invention areapplied via a drip irrigation system. In certain embodiments, thecompositions of the invention are applied to the soil prior to plantingvia drip irrigation. In certain embodiments, the compositions areapplied to the soil via drip irrigation after planting.

In certain embodiments, the compositions of the invention are appliedvia sprinkler irrigation. In certain embodiments, the compositions ofthe invention are applied via a Microjet® sprinkler. In certainembodiments, the compositions of the invention are applied to the soilprior to planting via sprinkler irrigation. In certain embodiments, thecompositions are applied to the soil via sprinkler irrigation afterplanting.

In certain embodiments, the invention is directed to compositionscomprising one or more surfactants and one or more high terpenecontaining oils. In certain embodiments, the one or more high terpenecontaining oil is a citrus oil. In certain embodiments, the high terpenecontaining oil is selected from the group consisting of orange oil,lemon oil, lime oil, grapefruit oil and tangerine oil. In a preferredembodiment, the high terpene containing oil is cold pressed orange oil.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises borax. Incertain embodiments, the composition is a concentrate comprising fromabout 0.5% by weight to about 5% by weight borax. In certainembodiments, the concentrate comprises from about 1.0% to about 4.5% byweight borax. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprises about1.5% to about 4.0% by weight borax. In certain embodiments, theconcentrate comprises about 2.0% to about 3.5% by weight borax. Incertain preferred embodiments, the concentrate comprises about 2.5% toabout 3.0% by weight borax.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises a fertilizer.In certain embodiments, the composition may further comprise a seaweedextract.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprisesmicro-nutrients.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises propyleneglycol. In certain embodiments, the composition is a concentratecomprising from about 5% by weight to about 10% by weight propyleneglycol. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprises from about 6%to about 9% by weight propylene glycol. In certain embodiments, theconcentrate comprises about 8% to about 9% propylene glycol. In certainpreferred embodiments, the concentrate comprises about 8.8% propyleneglycol.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises sodium laurethsulfate. In certain embodiments, the composition is a concentratecomprising from about 3% by weight to about 10% by weight sodium laurethsulfate. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprises from about 4%to about 9% by weight sodium laureth sulfate. In certain embodiments,the concentrate comprises about 5% to about 7% sodium laureth sulfate.In certain preferred embodiments, the concentrate comprises about 6%sodium laureth sulfate. In certain preferred embodiments, the sodiumlaureth sulfate is Calfoam ES-603.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises secondaryalcohol ethoxylate. In certain embodiments, the composition is aconcentrate comprising from about 10% by weight to about 30% by weightsecondary alcohol ethoxylate. In certain embodiments, the concentratecomprises from about 15% to about 25% by weight secondary alcoholethoxylate. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprises about 18%to about 22% secondary alcohol ethoxylate. In certain preferredembodiments, the concentrate comprises about 20% secondary alcoholethoxylate. In certain preferred embodiments, the secondary alcoholethoxylate is Tergitol 15-S-9.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises urea. Incertain embodiments, the composition is a concentrate comprising fromabout 0.1% by weight to about 2.0% by weight urea. In certainembodiments, the concentrate comprises from about 0.5% to about 1.5% byweight urea. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprises about0.8% to about 1.2% urea. In certain preferred embodiments, theconcentrate comprises about 1.0% urea.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises tetrasodiumethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid (EDTA). In certain embodiments, thecomposition is a concentrate comprising from about 0.1% by weight toabout 2.0% by weight EDTA. In certain embodiments, the concentratecomprises from about 0.2% to about 1.5% by weight EDTA. In certainembodiments, the concentrate comprises about 0.3% to about 1.0% EDTA. Incertain preferred embodiments, the concentrate comprises about 0.5%EDTA. In certain preferred embodiments, the EDTA is Versene 220.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises methylparaben. In certain embodiments, the composition is a concentratecomprising from about 0.01% by weight to about 2.0% by weight methylparaben. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprises from about0.02% to about 1.5% by weight methyl paraben. In certain embodiments,the concentrate comprises about 0.03% to about 1.0% methyl paraben. Incertain preferred embodiments, the concentrate comprises about 0.1%methyl paraben. In certain preferred embodiments, the methyl paraben isa methyl ester of benzoic acid.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises propylparaben. In certain embodiments, the composition is a concentratecomprising from about 0.01% by weight to about 2.0% by weight propylparaben. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprises from about0.02% to about 1.5% by weight propyl paraben. In certain embodiments,the concentrate comprises about 0.03% to about 1.0% propyl paraben. Incertain preferred embodiments, the concentrate comprises about 0.1%propyl paraben. In certain preferred embodiments, the propyl paraben isa propyl ester of benzoic acid.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises orange oil. Incertain embodiments, the composition is a concentrate comprising fromabout 1% by weight to about 20% by weight orange oil. In certainembodiments, the concentrate comprises from about 2% to about 15% byweight orange oil. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprisesabout 5% to about 12% orange oil. In certain preferred embodiments, theconcentrate comprises about 10% orange oil. In certain preferredembodiments, the orange oil is Valentia orange oil. In still furtherpreferred embodiments, the orange oil is cold pressed orange oil.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises ethyl alcohol.In certain embodiments, the composition is a concentrate comprising fromabout 1% by weight to about 15% by weight ethyl alcohol. In certainembodiments, the concentrate comprises from about 2% to about 10% byweight ethyl alcohol. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprisesabout 3% to about 7% ethyl alcohol. In certain preferred embodiments,the concentrate comprises about 5.5% ethyl alcohol.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises citric acid.In certain embodiments, the composition is a concentrate comprising fromabout 0.01% by weight to about 2.0% by weight citric acid. In certainembodiments, the concentrate comprises from about 0.02% to about 1.5% byweight citric acid. In certain embodiments, the concentrate comprisesabout 0.03% to about 1.0% citric acid. In certain preferred embodiments,the concentrate comprises about 0.1% citric acid.

In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises aninsecticide, fungicide, herbicide, nematicide or acaricide.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed incolor. Copies of this patent or patent application publication withcolor drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and paymentof the necessary fee.

FIG. 1: Leaves are providing excellent coverage protection from sunburn(treated). Compared with untreated control, the Phytophthora has stoppedspreading to other plants and increased growth is observed. Maximumheight of plants is approximately 17 inches. Observed bloom count of 8%over the untreated block (bloom count is the number of flowers per unitsuch as per plant or a certain distance in the row). Treated plantsprovide excellent coverage protection from sunburn. Overall plant healthas seen in the picture is excellent.

FIG. 2: In treated plants, peppers inside leaf cover are difficult tosee.

FIG. 3: Untreated plants are same age as other pictures. Notice how hardplant leaves look. Maximum height of plants is 13 inches.

FIG. 4: Untreated plants do not provide enough shade to protect thepeppers against sunburn. Sunburned pepper appears yellow.

FIG. 5: Untreated plants. More sunburn. Notice squatting of plants.Squatting as referred to here is a lack of mainly vertical growth due aproblem in the root system causing stress in the plant. This may be anyrelevant disease, poor soil conditions and water stress.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention is directed, in certain embodiments, to thecontrol, killing or prevention of nematodes and soil borne diseases.Such soil borne diseases include but are not limited to Fusarium,Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Erwinia and Verticillium. Thecompositions disclosed herein have been found to be surprisingly andunexpectedly effective in killing plant pathogenic nematodes as well asorganisms that are the causative agents of soil borne diseases. It hasadditionally been found that the disclosed compositions significantlyincrease the wetted soil volume available for water utilization by plantroots in soil treated with the compositions.

Applicant has found that the compositions disclosed herein killnematodes when applied directly to soil, this was not expected and verysurprising.

Applicant has also found that the compositions kill Fusarium, Pythium,Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Erwinia and Verticillium, this was notexpected and very suprising.

When applied via drip irrigation, the composition wets the treated soilin a more lateral fashion as opposed to forming more vertical channels.The result is that the wetted soil volume available for waterutilization by plant roots is larger and drainage loss below the rootzone is limited. This was not expected and very surprising.

Because the compositions increase the wetted soil volume available forwater utilization by the plant, there is a larger reservoir of wateravailable during periodic times of moisture stress like with dailyfluctuations in water loss by the plant or during times of drought.

Any treatment that improves the ability of the root zone to expand andabsorb water better during times of moisture stress, improves the growthand vigor of the whole plant, making it better able to withstand attacksby pests, including but not limited to, nematodes. Many above-groundpests including, but not limited to, mites increase their attacks andspeed up their breeding rate when they perceive plants to be understress. The plant being under stress is a sign to the pest that the foodsource might be depleted, triggering an increased breeding rate.

Improved growth and vigor of plants leads to more rapid expansion of thefoliage area of plants, leading to an increase in the net assimilationrate and consequently the production of more photosynthetic products.This increases the production of seeds, fruits, edible foliage or plantparts that are useful like foliage of turf grass.

Plants that are under stress tend to favor reproductive developmentdirected towards the formation of seeds as a last resort and neglect thedevelopment of other edible parts of the plant like fruit, apart fromthe seed, for which the plant is being produced. This includes but isnot limited to, strawberries, stone fruit, pome fruit, tomatoes,peppers, cucurbit fruits. Plants that are specifically grown to produceseeds, like nuts, when grown under stress, have smaller seeds that arenot desirable for marketing purposes.

The compositions of the invention, when injected into drip irrigationsystems, improve the efficiency of the individual drippers in treateddrip irrigation systems and make the volume of water delivered by theindividual drippers in the drip irrigation system more uniform. In otherwords, after treatment with the compositions of the invention, dripperheads in a drip irrigation system deliver closer to the same amount ofwater to soil over the same time period. This increases the accuracy ofthe dripper volume and makes the drip irrigation system more efficientbecause it allows the grower to more accurately control the amount ofwater delivered to soil.

Individual drippers and the tubing in drip irrigation systems cansometimes become “clogged” due to mineralization or the creation ofmineral deposits or scale inside the tubing and drippers. This can occurwhen certain nutrients are used over a period of time. In some dripirrigation systems, the water volume delivered by individual drippers ina drip irrigation systems can vary by as much as about 35% betweendifferent drippers. Variability between drippers can also occur whenhard water is used which contains high levels of calcium and/or mineralsand/or salts.

While not wishing to be bound by theory, one explanation for theimproved uniformity of drip volumes between individual drippers aftertreatment of a drip irrigation system with the compositions of theinvention is that the compositions dissolve mineral deposits or scalethat can form over time within drip irrigations systems. Thus, theamount of mineral deposit or scale in the drip irrigation system isreduced upon treatment with the compositions of the invention. Theresult is that the drip irrigation system is less clogged, the flow ofwater is not as restricted and the openings in the drippers are lessblocked or less obstructed.

As used herein, “demineralization” or “demineralizing” means that theamount of mineral deposit or scale present in a system is reducedcompared to the system in question prior to treatment with thecompositions of the invention.

One advantage to having uniformity of drip volume between individualdrippers in a drip irrigation system is that growers are better able tocontrol the amount of water to be delivered by the drippers to the soil.The is a surprising and unexpected property of the compositions of theinvention.

As used herein, high terpene containing natural oil means those naturaloils having a terpene content of at least 50 percent. It is preferablethat the high terpene natural oil contains at least 65 percent terpene.Suitable high terpene containing natural oils includes oil from coniferssuch as citrus peel oils, preferably orange oil, grapefruit oil, lemonoil, lime oil, tangerine oil or pine oil. Of these, orange oil ispreferred and cold pressed orange oil the most preferred. The preferredterpene content is from about 80 percent to about 95 percent and mostpreferred from about 85 percent to about 87 percent, all by weight.D'Limonene (Terpene of Citrus or other natural oils) may also be used.

As used herein, the terms “terpene” or “high terpene” refer to any of aclass of chemical compounds that are widespread in nature, mainly inplants as constituents of essential oils. Many terpenes arehydrocarbons, but oxygen-containing compounds such as alcohols,aldehydes or ketones (terpenoids) are also found. Their building blockis the hydrocarbon isoprene, CH₂═C(CH₃)—CH═CH₂. Certain terpenehydrocarbons have molecular formulas (C₅H₈)_(n), and may be classifiedaccording to the number of isoprene units. When terpenes are modifiedchemically, such as by oxidation or rearrangement of the carbonskeleton, the resulting compounds are generally referred to as“terpenoids.” As used herein, the term “terpene” includes all“terpenoids.” Examples of monoterpenes are: pinene, nerol, citral,camphor, menthol, limonene. Examples of sesquiterpenes are: nerolidol,farnesol. Examples of diterpenes are: phytol, vitamin A₁. Squalene is anexample of a triterpene, and carotene (provitamin A₁) is a tetraterpene.

In the context of methods of killing plant pests, as used herein, “soilin need of treatment” means soil that contains a causative agent,nematode, fungus, bacteria, virus or other pathogenic organism harmfulto plants.

In the context of methods for increasing wetted soil volume, as usedherein, “soil in need of treatment” means soil that has been subjectedto drought conditions or arid conditions such that plants grown in saidsoil are stressed due to lack of sufficient available water in the rootzones of said plants.

As used herein, “identifying soil containing any of the pests disclosedherein present in an amount sufficient to harm or reduce the growth of aplant growing in said soil” means soil that contains a causative agent,nematode, fungus, bacteria, virus or other pathogenic organism harmfulto plants.

As used herein, the “root zone” of a plant means the entire area whereroots are growing below a plant.

As used herein, the terms “pesticidal effect” and “pesticidal activity”mean any direct or indirect action on the target pest that results inreduced feeding damage on any part of the plant, including but notlimited to the seeds, roots, shoots and foliage of plants as comparedwith untreated plants.

The terms “active against a (first or second) pest”, also have the samemeaning. Such direct or indirect effects include inducing death of thepest, repelling the pest from any part of the plant, including but notlimited to seeds, roots, shoots and/or foliage, inhibiting feeding ofthe pest on, or the laying of its eggs on, the plant seeds, roots,shoots and/or foliage, and inhibiting or preventing reproduction of thepest.

“Plant pest” means any organism known to associate with plants andwhich, as a result of that association, causes a detrimental effect onthe plant's health and vigor. Plant pests include but are not limited tofungi, bacteria, viruses, molds, insects, mites and nematodes or anyother organism that causes a detrimental effect on the plant's health orvigor, excluding mammals, fish and birds.

The term “plant” as used herein encompasses whole plants and parts ofplants such as roots, shoots, stems, leaves, buds, seedlings, germinatedseeds and seed, as well as cells and tissues within the plants or plantparts.

The term “insecticidal activity” has the same meaning as pesticidalactivity, except it is limited to those instances where the pest is aninsect.

As used herein, the “shoots and foliage” of a plant are to be understoodto be the shoots, stems, branches, leaves, buds and other appendages ofthe stems and branches of the plant after the seed has sprouted,including the roots of the plant. It is preferable that the shoots andfoliage of a plant be understood to be those parts of the plant thathave grown from the seed and/or shoots of a “mother” plant.

As used herein, the “region of the seed” is to be understood to be thatregion within about one inch of the seed.

The one or more high terpene (50% by weight or more) based oils, suchas, but not limited to, citrus oil compositions of the present inventioncan be in the form of a liquid or solid solution; suspension; emulsion;emulsion concentrate; slurry of particles in an aqueous medium (e.g.,water); wettable powder; wettable granules (dry flowable); dry granules;stake, or stick. The concentration of the active ingredients in theformulation is preferably about 0.5% to about 99% by weight (w/w),preferably 5-40%.

Preferably, the one or more high terpene (50% terpene by weight or more)based oils such as but not limited to citrus oil compositions of theinvention may comprise from about 0.5% to about 99%, or preferably about1% to about 30% one or more high terpene (50% terpene by weight or more)based oils such as but not limited to citrus oil by weight. In certainpreferred embodiments, the one or more high terpene (50% terpene byweight or more) based oils such as but not limited to citrus oilcompositions of the invention may comprise about 5% to about 20%, orabout 12% to about 20% or about 12% to about 18% or about 10% citrus oilby weight.

Preferably, the one or more high terpene (50% terpene by weight or more)based oils such as but not limited to citrus oil compositions of theinvention may comprise about 3% to about 90% by weight surfactant or anypercent by weight within this range. Preferably, about 5% to about 20%by weight surfactant. When used as an adjuvant, the final surfactantconcentration is preferably about 0.05% to about 0.8% by weightsurfactant. In some embodiments, this may be from about 0.25% to about0.33% by weight surfactant. In other embodiments, the surfactant ispresent at about 0.05% by weight to about 0.2% by weight and in otherembodiments between about 0.025% to about 0.05%.

In certain embodiments, the one or more high terpene (50% terpene byweight or more) based oils such as but not limited to citrus oilcompositions of the invention may further comprise one or moreinsecticides, fungicides, miticides, herbicides, nutrients, plant growthregulators and/or fertilizers. In these embodiments, the one or morehigh terpene (50% terpene by weight or more) based oils such as but notlimited to citrus oil compositions of the invention may comprise about0.5% to about 65% insecticides, fungicides, miticides, herbicides,nutrients, plant growth regulators and/or fertilizers by weight. Incertain preferred embodiments, the one or more high terpene (50% terpeneby weight or more) based oils such as but not limited to citrus oilcompositions of the invention may comprise about 90% to about 99.99%insecticides, fungicides, miticides, herbicides, nutrients, plant growthregulators and/or fertilizers by weight.

In certain embodiments of the one or more high terpene (50% terpene byweight or more) based oils such as but not limited to citrus oilcompositions contemplated herein, the pH of the composition is betweenabout 6.0 to about 9.0 or preferably about 7.8 to about 8.0.

In certain embodiments, the one or more high terpene (50% terpene byweight or more) based oils such as but not limited to citrus oilcompositions of the invention may be diluted with water prior to use.Preferably, the citrus oil compositions may be diluted by combining fromabout 1 part one or more high terpene (50% terpene by weight or more)based oils such as but not limited to citrus oil composition with about2,000 parts water (1:2000); or about 2.5 parts citrus oil compositionwith about 100 parts water (2.5:100). In certain embodiments, when usedwith insecticides or fungicides, the compositions of the invention maybe diluted with water by combining about 100 parts water with about 1part of the composition (100:1) or any intervening dilution up to about2000 parts water with about 1 part of the composition. When used as anadjuvant, the compositions of the invention may be combined with about500 parts water with about 1 part composition or any interveningdilution up to about 2000 parts water or about 4000 parts water withabout 1 part composition.

Other conventional inactive or inert ingredients can be incorporatedinto the citrus oil formulations. Such inert ingredients include but arenot limited to: conventional sticking agents, dispersing agents such asmethylcellulose (Methocel A15LV or Methocel A15C, for example, serve ascombined dispersant/sticking agents for use in seed treatments),polyvinyl alcohol (e.g., Elvanol 51-05), lecithin (e.g., Yelkinol P),polymeric dispersants (e.g., polyvinylpyrrolidone/vinyl acetate PVP/VAS-630), thickeners (e.g., clay thickeners such as Van Gel B to improveviscosity and reduce settling of particle suspensions), emulsionstabilizers, surfactants, antifreeze compounds (e.g., urea), dyes,colorants, and the like.

Further inert ingredients useful in the present invention can be foundin McCutcheon's, vol. 1, “Emulsifiers and Detergents,” MC PublishingCompany, Glen Rock, N.J., U.S.A., 1996. Additional inert ingredientsuseful in the present invention can be found in McCutcheon's, vol. 2,“Functional Materials,” MC Publishing Company, Glen Rock, N.J., U.S.A.,1996.

Surfactants

The following compounds are provided as non-limiting examples of thesurfactants:

Nonionic surfactants include agents such as sorbitan monolaurate,sorbitan monopalmitate, sorbitan sesquioleate, sorbitan trioleate,polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, polyoxyethylene sorbitanmonostearate, polyethylene glycol monooleate, polyethylene glycolalkylate, polyoxyethylene alkyl ether, polyglycol diether, lauroyldiethanolamide, fatty acid iso-propanolamide, maltitol hydroxy fattyacid ether, alkylated polysaccharide, alkyl glucoside, sugar ester,oleophillic glycerol monostearate, self-emulsifiable glycerolmonostearate, polyglycerol monostearate, polyglycerol alkylate, sorbitanmonooleate, polyethylene glycol monostearate, polyoxyethylene sorbitanmonooleate, polyoxyethylene cetyl ether, polyoxyethylene sterol,polyoxyethylene lanolin, polyoxyethylene bees wax, and polyoxyethylenehydrogenated castor oil; and the like.

Anionic surfactants include agents such as sodium stearate, potassiumpalmitate, sodium cetyl sulfate, sodium lauryl phosphate, sodiumpolyoxyethylene lauryl sulfate, triethanolamine palmitate,polyoxyethylene sodium lauryl phosphate, and sodium N-acyl glutamate;and the like.

Cationic surfactants include agents such as stearyl dimethylbenzylammonium chloride, stearyl trimethyl ammonium chloride, benzalkoniumchloride, and laurylamine oxide; and the like.

Amphoteric surfactants such as alkylaminoethyl glycine chloride andlecithin; and the like.

Calfoam® ES-603 is a clear liquid sodium salt of alcohol ethoxy sulfatewith a faint alcohol odor. This biodegradable surfactant is pourable andpumpable at ambient temperatures and functions as a flash foamer andfoam stabilizer in aqueous systems.

TERGITOL™ 15-S-9 Surfactant is known chemically as secondary alcoholethoxylate. It is a non-ionic surfactant.

Citrus Oils and One or More High Terpene (50% Terpene by Weight or More)Based Oils

Citrus oils include orange oil, lemon oil, lime oil, grapefruit oil andtangerine oil.

The one or more high terpene (50% by weight or more) based oils, such asbut not limited to citrus oils, of the compositions and methods of theinvention may be obtained by any method from the citrus fruit inquestion. In particular, citrus oils are obtained from the skin or peelof the fruit in question. Preferred methods of obtaining the citrus oilinclude but are not limited to cold pressing techniques. Examples ofterpene containing oils that may be used in the compositions of theinvention include, but are not limited to, pine oils and naturallyoccurring oils of plants that contain 50% terpene or more terpenes.

Insecticides, Miticides and Fungicides

The terms “insecticide”, “miticide”, “fungicide” and “adjuvant for othercrop protection chemicals”, include any agent used primarily for thecontrol of insects and/or mites or fungi by preventing, destroying,repelling or mitigating any insects and/or mites or fungi which may bepresent in any environment whatsoever. These terms include the conceptsof “acaricide” (agent used primarily in the control of plant-feedingmites, especially spider mites), “nematicide” (agent used primarily forthe control of root-infesting nematodes on crop plants), “insectpheromone” (agent used primarily for the control of behavioral responsesof insects).

Herbicides

The citrus oil compositions of the invention may also comprise one ormore herbicides.

Fertilizers and Nutrients

The invention compositions may also comprise fertilizers and nutrients(e.g. nitrogen-, potassium- or phosphorus-containing fertilizers).Compositions comprising only granules of fertilizer incorporating, forexample coated with, the citrus oil compositions are preferred. Suchgranules suitably contain up to 25% by weight of the citrus oilcomposition. The invention therefore also provides a fertilizercomposition comprising a fertilizer and the citrus oil compositionsdisclosed herein.

Seaweed is a loose colloquial term encompassing macroscopic,multicellular, benthic marine algae. Seaweed extracts may be used asfertilizers. The term includes some members of the red, brown and greenalgae. A seaweed may belong to one of several groups of multicellularalgae: the red algae, green algae, and brown algae. As these threegroups are not thought to have a common multicellular ancestor, theseaweeds are a paraphyletic group. In addition, some tuft-formingbluegreen algae (Cyanobacteria) are sometimes considered as seaweeds.

Macronutrients required by plants can be divided into two groups,primary and secondary nutrients. The primary nutrients are nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium. Plants use large amounts of these nutrientsfor their growth and survival.

The secondary nutrients are calcium, magnesium and sulfur.

There are at least eight micro-nutrients essential to plant growth andhealth that are only needed in very small quantities. These aremanganese, boron, copper, iron, chlorine, cobalt, molybdenum, and zinc.Some also consider sulfur a micronutrient. Though these are present inonly small quantities, they are all necessary.

Boron is believed to be involved in carbohydrate transport in plants; italso assists in metabolic regulation. Boron deficiency will often resultin bud dieback. Boron is also essential for pollen tube growth inplants.

Chlorine is necessary for osmosis and ionic balance; it also plays arole in photosynthesis.

Cobalt is essential to plant health. Cobalt is thought to be animportant catalyst in nitrogen fixation. It may need to be added to somesoils before seeding legumes.

Copper is a component of some enzymes and of vitamin A. Symptoms ofcopper deficiency include browning of leaf tips and chlorosis.

Iron is essential for chlorophyll synthesis, which is why an irondeficiency results in chlorosis.

Manganese activates some important enzymes involved in chlorophyllformation. Manganese deficient plants will develop chlorosis between theveins of its leaves. The availability of manganese is partiallydependent on soil pH.

Molybdenum is essential to plant health. Molybdenum is used by plants toreduce nitrates into usable forms. Some plants use it for nitrogenfixation, thus it may need to be added to some soils before seedinglegumes.

Zinc participates in chlorophyll formation, and also activates manyenzymes. Symptoms of zinc deficiency include chlorosis and stuntedgrowth.

TABLE 1 List of minimum and maximum elemental contents in liquidfertilizers Ingredient Minimum Maximum Mininum Maximum Ingredient Symbolg/kg g/kg % w/w % w/w Nitrogen N 51 96 5.1 9.6 Phosphorus P 10 63 1 6.3Potassium K 32 83 3.2 8.3 Calcium Ca 56.6 195 5.66 19.5 Magnesium Mg 955 0.9 5.5 Boron B 0.2 115 0.02 11.5 Iron Fe 1 70 0.1 7 Manganese Mn 0.590 0.05 9 Molybdenum Mo 0.005 0.28 0.0005 0.028 Zinc Zn 0.5 120 0.05 12Copper Cu 0.5 140 0.05 14 Sulphur S 10 12.4 1 1.24

Plant Growth Regulators

Plant growth regulators, also known as plant hormones and phytohormonesare chemicals that regulate plant growth. According to a standard animaldefinition, hormones are signal molecules produced at specificlocations, that occur in very low concentrations, and cause alteredprocesses in targeted cells at other locations. Plant hormones, on theother hand, are distinct from animal hormones, since they are often nottransported to other parts of the plant and production is not limited tospecific locations. Plants lack tissues or organs specifically for theproduction of hormones; unlike animals, plants lack glands that produceand secrete hormones that are then circulated around the body. Planthormones shape the plant, affecting seed growth, time of flowering, thesex of flowers, senescence of leaves and fruits, they affect whichtissues grow upward and which grow downward, leaf formation and stemgrowth, fruit development and ripening, plant longevity and plant death.

Plant Varieties and Crops

The citrus oil compositions disclosed herein are preferably used foragricultural and horticultural purposes in the form of a composition.The type of composition used in any instance will depend upon theparticular purpose envisaged.

It is contemplated that the present methods can be used to protect theseeds, roots and/or the above-ground parts of field, forage, plantation,glasshouse, greenhouse, orchard or vineyard crops, grasses, turf,ornamentals, plantation, household or forest trees.

The plants that may be treated using the methods and compositionsdisclosed herein can be any species of plant. However, they arepreferably the plant species that are agronomically or horticulturallyimportant. In particular, the plant species can be corn, peanut,canola/rapeseed, soybean, cucurbits, crucifers, cotton, beets, rice,sorghum, sugar beet, wheat, barley, rye, sunflower, tomato, sugarcane,tobacco, oats, as well as other vegetable and leaf crops. In certainembodiments, the crops or plant species may include vineyards, citrus,pecans, almonds, all stone fruits, apples, pears, bananas, lawns, turf,home & garden and garden varieties of plants.

The plants may also be any ornamental plants, including but not limitedto rose, tulip, violet, daffodil, gladiolus, lavender, lilies,narcissus, orchid, hyacinth, chrysanthemum, crocus, iris, peonies,zephyranthes, carnation, anthurium, gloxinia, azalea, poinsettia,ageratum, bamboo, begonia, camellia, dahlia, dianthus, geranium,impatiens, lilies of the valley and lobelia.

In one embodiment of the invention, the plant or seed is anon-transgenic plant or seed.

In another embodiment of the invention, the plant or seed is atransgenic plant or seed from which a transgenic plant can grow. Thetransgenic plants and seeds of the present invention are engineered toexpress a desirable characteristic and, in particular, to have at leastone heterologous gene encoding for the expression of a protein that ispesticidally active and, in particular, has insecticidal activity. Theheterologous gene in the transgenic plant or seed of the presentinvention can be derived from a microorganism such as Bacillus,Rhizobium, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Trichoderma, Clavibacter, Glomus,Gliocladium and mycorrhizal fungi. In particular, it is contemplatedthat the present methods are especially beneficial when the heterologousgene is one that is derived from a Bacillus sp. microorganism and theprotein is active against corn rootworm.

It is also contemplated that the present methods are especiallybeneficial when the heterologous gene is one that is derived from aBacillus sp. microorganism and the protein is active against Europeancorn borer. A preferred Bacillus sp. microorganism is Bacillusthuringiensis. It is particularly preferred when the heterologous geneencodes a modified Cry3Bb delta-endotoxin derived from Bacillusthuringiensis.

Methods of Application

The compositions disclosed herein can be applied in a number of ways. Inthe most preferred method of application, the compositions disclosedherein are applied directly to the soil that has been selected fortreatment. Application methods include drip irrigation, sprinklerirrigation, spraying, or dusting or applying as a cream or pasteformulation, or applying as a vapor or as slow release granules.

The compositions may be applied using methods including but not limitedto spraying, wetting, dipping, misting, drenching, showering, fogging,soaking, dampening, drizzling, dousing, aerial crop dusting via airplaneor helicopter and splashing.

The compositions may be in the form of dustable powders or granulescomprising the citrus oil compositions in dry form and a solid diluentor carrier, for example, fillers such as kaolin, bentonite, kieselguhr,dolomite, calcium carbonate, talc, powdered magnesia, fuller's earth,gypsum, diatomaceous earth and china clay. Such granules can bepreformed granules suitable for application to the soil without furthertreatment. These granules can be made either by impregnating pellets offiller with the citrus oil compositions or by pelleting a mixture of thecitrus oil composition and powdered filler.

Compositions for dressing seed may include an agent (for example, amineral oil) for assisting the adhesion of the citrus oil composition tothe seed; alternatively the active ingredient can be formulated for seeddressing purposes using an organic solvent (for example,N-methylpyrrolidone, propylene glycol or N,N-dimethylformamide). Thecompositions may also be in the form of wettable powders or waterdispersible granules comprising wetting or dispersing agents tofacilitate the dispersion in liquids. The powders and granules may alsocontain fillers and suspending agents.

Emulsifiable concentrates or emulsions may be prepared by dissolving thecitrus oil composition in an organic solvent optionally containing awetting or emulsifying agent and then adding the mixture to water whichmay also contain a wetting or emulsifying agent. Suitable organicsolvents are aromatic solvents such as alkylbenzenes andalkylnaphthalenes, ketones such as cyclohexanone andmethylcyclohexanone, chlorinated hydrocarbons such as chlorobenzene andtrichlorethane, and alcohols such as benzyl alcohol, furfuryl alcohol,butanol and glycol ethers.

Suspension concentrates of largely insoluble solids may be prepared byball or bead milling with a dispersing agent with a suspending agentincluded to stop the solid settling.

Compositions to be used as sprays may be in the form of aerosols whereinthe formulation is held in a container under pressure of a propellant,e.g. fluorotrichloromethane or dichlorodifluoromethane.

The citrus oil compositions can be mixed in the dry state with apyrotechnic mixture to form a composition suitable for generating inenclosed spaces a smoke containing the citrus oil compositions.

Alternatively, the citrus oil compositions may be used inmicro-encapsulated form. They may also be formulated in biodegradablepolymeric formulations to obtain a slow, controlled release of thecitrus oil composition.

By including suitable additives, for example additives for improving thedistribution, adhesive power and resistance to rain on treated surfaces,the citrus oil compositions can be better adapted for various utilities.

Wettable powders, emulsifiable concentrates and suspension concentrateswill normally contain surfactants, e.g. a wetting agent, dispersingagent, emulsifying agent or suspending agent. These agents can becationic, anionic or non-ionic agents.

Seed Coatings

The one or more high terpene (50% terpene by weight or more) based oilssuch as but not limited to citrus oil compositions of the invention maybe used as seed coatings. Useful seed coatings contain one or morebinders and at least one of the subject citrus oil compositions. Bindersthat are useful in the present invention preferably comprise an adhesivepolymer that may be natural or synthetic and is without phytotoxiceffect on the seed to be coated. The binder may be selected frompolyvinyl acetates; polyvinyl acetate copolymers; polyvinyl alcohols;polyvinyl alcohol copolymers; celluloses, including ethylcelluloses,methylcelluloses, hydroxymethylcelluloses, hydroxypropylcelluloses andcarboxymethylcellulose; polyvinylpyrolidones; polysaccharides, includingstarch, modified starch, dextrins, maltodextrins, alginate andchitosans; fats; oils; proteins, including gelatin and zeins; gumarabics; shellacs; vinylidene chloride and vinylidene chloridecopolymers; calcium lignosulfonates; acrylic copolymers;polyvinylacrylates; polyethylene oxide; acrylamide polymers andcopolymers; polyhydroxyethyl acrylate, methylacrylamide monomers; andpolychloroprene.

The amount of binder in the coatings of the invention can vary, but willbe in the range of about 0.01 to about 25% of the weight of the seed,more preferably from about 0.05 to about 15%, and even more preferablyfrom about 0.1% to about 10%.

The citrus oil formulations of the invention can optionally include afiller. The filler can be an absorbent or an inert filler, such as areknown in the art, and may include woodflours, clays, activated carbon,sugars, diatomaceous earth, cereal flours, fine-grain inorganic solids,calcium carbonate, and the like. Clays and inorganic solids which may beused include calcium bentonite, kaolin, china clay, talc, perlite, mica,vermiculite, silicas, quartz powder, montmorillonite and mixturesthereof. Sugars which may be useful include dextrin and maltodextrin.Cereal flours include wheat flour, oat flour and barley flour.

The filler is selected so that it will provide a proper microclimate forthe seed, for example the filler is used to increase the loading rate ofthe active ingredients and to adjust the control-release of the activeingredients. The filler can aid in the production or process of coatingthe seed. The amount of filler can vary, but generally the weight of thefiller components will be in the range of about 0.05 to about 75% of theseed weight, more preferably about 0.1 to about 50% terpene, and evenmore preferably about 0.5% to 15%.

The exact amount of the combination of the active ingredients that isincluded in the coating is determined by one of skill in the art andwill vary depending upon the size of the seed to be coated. The activeingredients of the coating must not inhibit germination of the seed andshould be efficacious in protecting the seed and/or the plant duringthat time in the target insect's life cycle in which it causes injury tothe seed or plant. In general, the coating will be efficacious forapproximately 0 to 120 days after sowing.

The coating is particularly effective in accommodating high activeingredient loads, as can be required to treat typically refractorypests, such as corn root worm, while at the same time preventingunacceptable phytotoxicity due to the increased active ingredient load.

Optionally, a plasticizer can be used in the coating formulation.Plasticizers are typically used to make the film that is formed by thecoating layer more flexible, to improve adhesion and spreadability, andto improve the speed of processing. Improved film flexibility isimportant to minimize chipping, breakage or flaking during storage,handling or sowing processes. Many plasticizers may be used, however,useful plasticizers include polyethylene glycol, glycerol,butylbenzylphthalate, glycol benzoates and related compounds. The rangeof plasticizer in the coating layer will be in the range of from about0.1 to about 20% by weight.

Nematicides

A nematicide is a type of chemical pesticide used to kill parasiticnematodes (roundworms).

Nematodes

Plant parasitic nematodes include several groups causing severe croplosses. The most common genera are Aphelenchoides (foliar nematodes),Ditylenchus, Globodera (potato cyst nematodes), Heterodera (soybean cystnematodes), Longidorus, Meloidogyne (root-knot nematodes), Nacobbus,Pratylenchus (lesion nematodes), Trichodorus and Xiphinema (daggernematodes). Several phytoparasitic nematode species cause histologicaldamage to roots, including the formation of visible galls (e.g. byroot-knot nematodes), which are useful characteristics for theirdiagnosis in the field. Some nematode species transmit plant virusesthrough their feeding activity on roots. One of them is Xiphinema index,vector of GFLV (Grapevine Fanleaf Virus), an important disease ofgrapes.

Other nematodes attack bark and forest trees. The most importantrepresentative of this group is Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the pinewood nematode, present in Asia and America and recently discovered inEurope.

Nematodes commonly parasitic on humans include ascarids (Ascaris),filarids, hookworms, pinworms (Enterobius) and whipworms (Trichuristrichiura). The species Trichinella spiralis, commonly known as thetrichina worm, occurs in rats, pigs, and humans, and is responsible forthe disease trichinosis. Baylisascaris usually infests wild animals butcan be deadly to humans as well. Haemonchus contortus is one of the mostabundant infectious agents in sheep around the world, causing greateconomic damage to sheep farms. In contrast, entomopathogenic nematodesparasitize insects and are considered by humans to be beneficial.

One form of nematode is entirely dependent upon fig wasps, which are thesole source of fig fertilization. They prey upon the wasps, riding themfrom the ripe fig of the wasp's birth to the fig flower of its death,where they kill the wasp, and their offspring await the birth of thenext generation of wasps as the fig ripens.

Examples of Plant Pathogenic Nematodes Major Pests on Corn

Belonolaimus (The Sting Namatode)

Criconemoides (Ring Nematodes)

Helicotylenchu (Spiral Nematodes)

Heterodera Zeae (The Corn Cyst Nematode)

Hoplolaimus (The Lance Nematode)

Xiphinema (The Dagger Nematode)

Longidorus (The Needle Nematode)

Meloidogyne (The Root-Knot Nematodes)

Pratylenchus (The Lesion Nematode)

Paratrichodorus (Stubby-Root Nemadoes)

Tylenchorhynchus (Stunt Nematodes)

Major Pests on Potato

Meloidogyne Chitwoodi (Columbia Root-knot Nematode)

Meloidogyne Hapla (Northern Root Knot Nematode)

Globodera Pallida (Pale Potato Cyst Nematode)

Globodera Rostochiensis (Golden Nematode)

Ditylenchus Destructor (Potato Rot Nematode)

Major Pests on Soybean

Heterodera Glycines (Soybean Cyst Nematode (SCN))

Belonolaimus spp. (The Sting Nematode)

Major Pests on Sugar Beet

Heterodera Schachtti (Sugar Beet Cyst Nematode)

Nacobbus Aberrans (False Root-Knot Nematode)

Major Pests on Turf

Belonolaimus Species (The Sting Nematodes)

Meloidogyne Species (The Root-knot Nematodes)

Hoplolaimus Galeatus (The Lance Nematode)

Criconemoides Species (Ring Nematode)

Major Pests of Trees, Orchards and Vineyards

Bursaphelenchus Xylophilus (Pine Wilt Nematode)

Radopholus Similis (Burrowing Nematode)

Xiphinema Americanum (The Dagger Nematode)

Meloidogyne Hapla (Root-knot Nematode)

Rotylenchulus spp. (Reniform Nematode)

Tylenchulus Semipenetrans (The Citrus Nematode)

Belonolaimus Longicaudatus (Ring Nematode)

Macroposthonia Xenoplax (Ring Nematode)

Tylenchorhynchus spp. (Stunt Nematodes)

Pratylenchus spp. (Lesion Nematode)

Major Pests of Ornamentals and Garden Vegetables

Aphelenchoides spp. (Foliar Nematodes)

Ditylenchus dipsaci (Stem and Bulb Nematode)

Meloidogyne spp. (Root-knot Nematodes)

Belonolaimus Longicaudatus (Sting Nematode)

Phytophthora

Phytophthora (from Greek phyton, “plant” and phthorá, “destruction”;“the plant-destroyer”) is a genus of plant-damaging Protists of theOomycetes (water molds).

Phytophthoras are mostly pathogens of dicotyledons, and are relativelyhost-specific parasites. Many species of Phytophthora are plantpathogens of considerable economic importance. Phytophthora infestanswas the infective agent of the potato blight that caused the Great IrishFamine (1845-1849). Plant diseases caused by this genus are difficult tocontrol chemically, thus resistant cultivars are grown as a managementstrategy. Research beginning in the 1990s has placed some of theresponsibility for European forest die-back on the activity of importedAsian Phytophthoras.

Other important Phytophthora diseases are:

-   -   Phytophthora alni—causes alder root rot    -   Phytophthora cactorum—causes rhododendron root rot affecting        rhododendrons, azaleas and causes bleeding canker in hardwood        trees    -   Phytophthora cinnamomi—causes cinnamon root rot affecting woody        ornamentals including arborvitae, azalea, Chamaecyparis,        dogwood, forsythia, Fraser fir, hemlock, Japanese holly,        juniper, Pieris, rhododendron, Taxus, white pine, and American        chestnut    -   Phytophthora fragariae—causes red root rot affecting        strawberries    -   Phytophthora kernoviae—pathogen of beech and rhododendron, also        occurring on other trees and shrubs including oak, and holm oak.        First seen in Cornwall, UK, in 2003.    -   Phytophthora palmivora—causes fruit rot in coconuts and betel        nuts    -   Phytophthora ramorum—infects over 60 plant genera and over 100        host species—causes Sudden Oak Death    -   Phytophthora quercina—causes oak death    -   Phytophthora sojae—causes soybean root rot

Fusarium

Fusarium is a large genus of filamentous fungi widely distributed insoil and in association with plants. It is found in normal mycoflora ofcommodities, such as rice, bean, soybean, and other crops. While mostspecies are more common at tropical and subtropical areas, some inhabitsoil in cold climates. Some Fusarium species have a teleomorphic stateMost species are harmless saprobes and are relatively abundant membersof the soil microbial community. Some species produce mycotoxins incereal crops that can affect human and animal health if they enter thefood chain. The main toxins produced by these Fusarium species arefumonisins and trichothecenes.

The genus includes a number of economically important plant pathogenicspecies. Fusarium graminearum commonly infects barley if there is rainlate in the season. It is of economic impact to the malting and brewingindustries as well as feed barley. Fusarium contamination in barley canresult in head blight and in extreme contaminations the barley canappear pink. The genome of this wheat and maize pathogen has beensequenced. Fusarium graminearum can also cause root rot and seedlingblight. The total losses in the US of barley and wheat crops between1991 and 1996 have been estimated at $3 billion.

Fusarium blight associated with turfgrass is caused by the widespreadfungi Fusarium roseum and F. tricinctum.

Fusarium root rot is one of the most common diseases of coniferseedlings in the world and is widespread in North American nurseries.

Fusarium wilt affects many different horticultural plants and is themost important pathological problem of plants grown in artificialgrowing media. Because this fungus prefers warmer temperatures, heatedcontainer nurseries are ideal for build-up of this disease.

Solanaceous crop plants (tomato, potato, pepper, and eggplant) may beinfected at any age by the fungi that cause Fusarium wilt andVerticillium wilt. The wilt organisms usually enter the plant throughyoung roots and then grow into and up the water conducting vessels ofthe roots and stem. As the vessels are plugged and collapse, the watersupply to the leaves is blocked. With a limited water supply, leavesbegin to wilt on sunny days and recover at night.

Pythium

Pythium is a genus of parasitic oomycete. Because this group oforganisms were once classified as fungi, they are sometimes stilltreated as such.

Pythium root rot is a common crop disease caused by a genus of organismscalled “Pythium”. These are commonly called water moulds. Pythiumdamping off is a very common problem in fields and greenhouses, wherethe organism kills newly emerged seedlings. This disease complex usuallyinvolves other pathogens such as Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia. Pythiumwilt is caused by zoospore infection of older plants leading tobiotrophic infections that become necrotrophic in response tocolonization/reinfection pressures or environmental stress, leading tominor or severe wilting caused by impeded root functioning.

Pythium in turfgrass. Many Pythium species, along with their closerelatives, Phytophthora species are plant pathogens of economicimportance in agriculture. Pythium spp. tend to be very generalistic andunspecific in their host range. They infect a large range of hosts,while Phytophthora spp. are generally more host-specific.

For this reason, Pythium spp. are more devastating in the root rot theycause in crops, because crop rotation alone will often not eradicate thepathogen (nor will fallowing the field, as Pythium spp. are also goodsaprotrophs, and will survive for a long time on decaying plant matter).

It has been noted that in field crops, damage by Pythium spp. is oftenlimited to the area affected, as the motile zoospores require amplesurface water to travel long distances. Additionally, the capillariesformed by soil particles act as a natural filter and effectively trapmany zoospores. However, in hydroponic systems inside greenhouses, whereextensive monocultures of plants are maintained in plant nutrientsolution (containing nitrogen, potassium, phosphate, andmicro-nutrients) that is continuously recirculated to the crop, Pythiumspp. cause extensive and devastating root rot and is often difficult toprevent or control. The root rot affects entire operations (tens ofthousands of plants, in many instances) within two to four days due tothe inherent nature of hydroponic systems where roots are nakedlyexposed to the water medium, in which the zoospores can move freely.

Several Pythium species, including P. oligandrum, P. nunn, P.periplocum, and P. acanthicum are mycoparasites of plant pathogenicfungi and oomycetes, and have received interest as potential biocontrolagents.

Rhizoctonia

Rhizoctonia is plant pathogenic fungus with a wide host range andworldwide distribution. Rhizoctonia species consists of a large diversegroup. All of them exist primarily as a sterile mycelium. It causesserious diseases on many hosts affecting plant parts that develop in theground. These plant hosts include vegetables, ornamentals, turf grasses,and flowers. Rhizoctonia solani, the most important one, containsseveral nuclei in the mycelium cells. The fungus may sometimes exist assmall brown sclerotia.

The most common symptom caused by Rhizoctonia is damping-off, whichaffects mainly seedlings but it can persist in plants that have surviveddamping-off to reveal other symptoms. On younger seedlings the diseasecauses the stem to become watery and soft, unable to support theseedling. Older seedlings may show lesions in the outer cortex thateventually girdle the stem.

Seedling stem canker caused by Rhizoctonia occurs on tobacco, cotton andother seedlings under conditions that are less favorable to the diseaseand where the seedlings manage to survive the damping-off stage. Rootlesions are formed on plants from the seedling to mature stages. Thisleads to yellowing and serious weakening of the plant. Plants may alsodie.

On tubers, fleshy stems and roots as well as on bulbs Rhizoctonia causesbrown rotten areas of various depths. These areas eventually dry to forma sunken area. Crater rot occurs on carrots and black scurf on potatotubers.

In turf grasses Rhizoctonia manifests itself as brown spot with circularbrown patches in which the grass blades dry out.

Rhizoctonia overwinters as mycelia or sclerotia in soil or in plantmaterial.

Sclerotinia

Sclerotinia is a genus of fungi in the family Sclerotiniaceae. In thisgenus S. sclerotiorum and S. minor cause many diseases such as molds,blights and rots in fruits, roots, stems leaves, flowers, bulbs andcorms. They infect plants in all stages of growth. External symptoms ofthe disease often manifest as lesions on the plant stem followed by awhite cottony mycelial growth and later the formation black sclerotia.Sclerotia may also form in the pith of the stem. Sclerotinia homeocarpais the cause of dollar spot on turf.

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum overwinters as sclerotia on or in infectedplant tissues, on the ground or as mycelium on live plants.

Erwinia

Erwinia is a genus of Enterobacteriaceae bacteria containing mostlyplant pathogenic species which was named for the firstphytobacteriologist, Erwin Smith. It is a gram negative bacteriumrelated to E. coli, Shigella, Salmonella and Yersinia. It is primarily arod-shaped bacteria. A well-known member of this genus is the species E.amylovora, which causes fireblight on apple, pear, and other Rosaceouscrops. Erwinia carotovora (now known as Pectobacterium carotovorum) isanother species, which causes diseases in many plants. These speciesproduce enzymes that hydrolyze pectin between individual plant cells.This causes the cells to separate, a disease plant pathologists termplant rot.

Erwinia carotovora (Pectobacterium carotovorum). This bacteria is aplant pathogen with a wide host range (carrot, potato, tomato, leafygreens, squash and other cucurbits, onion, green peppers, etc.), able tocause disease in almost any plant tissue it invades. It is a veryeconomically important pathogen in terms of postharvest losses, and acommon cause of decay in stored fruits and vegetables. Decay caused byE. carotovora is often referred to as bacterial soft rot (BSR). Mostplants or plant parts can resist invasion by the bacteria, unless sometype of wound is present. High humidity and temperatures around 30° C.favor development of decay. Mutants can be produced which are lessvirulent. Virulence factors include: pectinases, cellulases, (whichdegrade plant cell walls), and also proteases, lipases, xylanases andnucleases (along with the normal virulence factors for pathogens—Feacquisition, LPS integrity, multiple global regulatory systems).

Verticillium

Verticillium is a genus of fungi in the division Ascomycota. Within thegenus, diverse groups are formed comprising saprotrophs and parasites ofhigher plants, insects, nematodes, mollusc eggs and other fungi thus itcan be seen that the genus is a wide ranging group of taxa characterisedby simple but ill-defined characters. The genus may be broadly dividedinto three ecologically based groups 1) mycopathogens; 2)entomopathogens; and 3) plant pathogens and related saprotrophs.However, recently the genus has undergone some revision into which mostentomopathogenic and mycopathogenic isolates fall into a new groupcalled Lecanicillium. Plant pathogenic isolates still retain theoriginal genus name Verticillium.

The better known species of Verticillium are, V. dahliae and V.albo-atrum that cause a wilt disease called Verticillium wilt in morethan 300 eudicot plant species.

Drip Irrigation

Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation or micro-irrigation,is an irrigation method which minimizes the use of water and fertilizeror any other additive by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots ofplants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone,through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters.

Drip irrigation has arguably become the world's most valued innovationin agriculture since the invention of the impact sprinkler in the 1930s,which replaced flood irrigation. Drip irrigation may also use devicescalled micro-spray heads, which spray water in a small area, instead ofdripping emitters. These are generally used on tree and vine crops withwider root zones. Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) uses permanently ortemporarily buried dripperline or drip tape located at or below theplant roots. It is becoming popular for row crop irrigation, especiallyin areas where water supplies are limited or recycled water is used forirrigation. Careful study of all the relevant factors like landtopography, soil, water, crop and agro-climatic conditions are needed todetermine the most suitable drip irrigation system and components to beused in a specific installation.

Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if adrip system is operated for too long of a duration or if the deliveryrate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech andcomputerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressures areusually needed than for most other types of systems, with the exceptionof low energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, andthe system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or forprecise water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing amix of plant species. Although it is difficult to regulate pressure onsteep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are available, so the fielddoes not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve preciselycalibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend from acomputerized set of valves. Both pressure regulation and filtration toremove particles are important. The tubes are usually black (or buriedunder soil or mulch) to prevent the growth of algae and to protect thepolyethylene from degradation due to ultraviolet light. But dripirrigation can also be as low-tech as a porous clay vessel sunk into thesoil and occasionally filled from a hose or bucket. Subsurface dripirrigation has been used successfully on lawns, but it is more expensivethan a more traditional sprinkler system.

Sprinkler Irrigation

In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or morecentral locations within the field and distributed by overheadhigh-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays,or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is oftenreferred to as a solid-set irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklersthat rotate are called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, geardrive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a fullor partial circle. Guns are similar to rotors, except that theygenerally operate at very high pressures of 40 to 130 lbf/in² (275 to900 kPa) and flows of 50 to 1200 US gal/min (3 to 76 L/s), usually withnozzle diameters in the range of 0.5 to 1.9 inches (10 to 50 mm). Gunsare used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial applicationssuch as dust suppression and logging.

Sprinklers may also be mounted on moving platforms connected to thewater source by a hose. Automatically moving wheeled systems known astraveling sprinklers may irrigate areas such as small farms, sportsfields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries unattended. Most of theseutilize a length of polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum. As thetubing is wound on the drum powered by the irrigation water or a smallgas engine, the sprinkler is pulled across the field. When the sprinklerarrives back at the reel the system shuts off. This type of system isknown to most people as a “waterreel” traveling irrigation sprinkler andthey are used extensively for dust suppression, irrigation, and landapplication of waste water. Other travelers use a flat rubber hose thatis dragged along behind while the sprinkler platform is pulled by acable.

Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation consisting ofseveral segments of pipe (usually galvanized steel or aluminum) joinedtogether and supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers withsprinklers positioned along its length. The system moves in a circularpattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of thearc.

Most center pivot systems now have drops hanging from a u-shaped pipecalled a gooseneck attached at the top of the pipe with sprinkler headsthat are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limitingevaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblersthat deposit the water directly on the ground between crops. The cropsare planted in a circle to conform to the center pivot. This type ofsystem is known as LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application).

Hydroponics

Hydroponics (from the Greek words hydro water and ponos labor) is amethod of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, without soil.Terrestrial plants may be grown with their roots in the mineral nutrientsolution only or in an inert medium, such as perlite, gravel, or mineralwool.

Plant physiology researchers discovered in the 19th century that plantsabsorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. Innatural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but thesoil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrientsin the soil dissolve in water, plant roots are able to absorb them. Whenthe required mineral nutrients are introduced into a plant's watersupply artificially, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive.Almost any terrestrial plant will grow with hydroponics.

The two main types of hydroponics are solution culture and mediumculture. Solution culture does not use a solid medium for the roots,just the nutrient solution. The three main types of solution culture arestatic solution culture, continuous flow solution culture andaeroponics. The medium culture method has a solid medium for the rootsand is named for the type of medium, e.g. sand culture, gravel cultureor rockwool culture. There are two main variations for each medium,subirrigation and top irrigation. For all techniques, most hydroponicreservoirs are now built of plastic but other materials have been usedincluding concrete, glass, metal, vegetable solids and wood. Thecontainers should exclude light to prevent algae growth in the nutrientsolution.

In static solution culture, plants are grown in containers of nutrientsolution, such as glass Mason jars (typically in-home applications),plastic buckets, tubs or tanks. The solution is usually gently aeratedbut may be unaerated. If unaerated, the solution level is kept lowenough that enough roots are above the solution so they get adequateoxygen. A hole is cut in the lid of the reservoir for each plant. Therecan be one to many plants per reservoir. Reservoir size can be increasedas plant size increases. A homemade system can be constructed fromplastic food containers or glass canning jars with aeration provided byan aquarium pump, aquarium airline tubing and aquarium valves. Clearcontainers are covered with aluminium foil, butcher paper, black plasticor other material to exclude light, thus helping to eliminate theformation of algae. The nutrient solution is either changed on aschedule, such as once per week, or when the concentration drops below acertain level as determined with an electrical conductivity meter.Whenever the solution is depleted below a certain level, either water orfresh nutrient solution is added. A Mariotte's bottle can be used toautomatically maintain the solution level. In raft solution culture,plants are placed in a sheet of buoyant plastic that is floated on thesurface of the nutrient solution. That way, the solution level neverdrops below the roots.

In continuous flow solution culture the nutrient solution constantlyflows past the roots. It is much easier to automate than the staticsolution culture because sampling and adjustments to the temperature andnutrient concentrations can be made in a large storage tank that servespotentially thousands of plants. A popular variation is the nutrientfilm technique or NFT whereby a very shallow stream of water containingall the dissolved nutrients required for plant growth is recirculatedpast the bare roots of plants in a watertight gully, also known aschannels. Ideally, the depth of the recirculating stream should be veryshallow, little more than a film of water, hence the name ‘nutrientfilm’. This ensures that the thick root mat, which develops in thebottom of the channel, has an upper surface which, although moist, is inthe air. Subsequently, there is an abundant supply of oxygen to theroots of the plants. A properly designed NFT system is based on usingthe right channel slope, the right flow rate and the right channellength. The main advantage of the NFT system over other forms ofhydroponics is that the plant roots are exposed to adequate supplies ofwater, oxygen and nutrients. In all other forms of production there is aconflict between the supply of these requirements, since excessive ordeficient amounts of one results in an imbalance of one or both of theothers. NFT, because of its design, provides a system where all threerequirements for healthy plant growth can be met at the same time,providing the simple concept of NFT is always remembered and practised.The result of these advantages is that higher yields of high qualityproduce are obtained over an extended period of cropping.

The same design characteristics apply to all conventional NFT systems.While slopes along channels of 1:100 have been recommended, in practiceit is difficult to build a base for channels that is sufficiently trueto enable nutrient films to flow without ponding in locally depressedareas. Consequently, it is recommended that slopes of 1:30 to 1:40 areused. This allows for minor irregularities in the surface but, even withthese slopes, ponding and waterlogging may occur. The slope may beprovided by the floor, or benches or racks may hold the channels andprovide the required slope. Both methods are used and depend on localrequirements, often determined by the site and crop requirements.

As a general guide, flow rates for each gully should be 1 liter perminute. At planting, rates may be half this and the upper limit of 2L/min appears about the maximum. Flow rates beyond these extremes areoften associated with nutritional problems. Depressed growth rates ofmany crops have been observed when channels exceed 12 meters in length.On rapidly growing crops, tests have indicated that, while oxygen levelsremain adequate, nitrogen may be depleted over the length of the gully.Consequently, channel length should not exceed 10-15 meters. Insituations where this is not possible, the reductions in growth can beeliminated by placing another nutrient feed half way along the gully andreducing flow rates to 1 L/min through each outlet.

Aeroponics is a system where roots are continuously or discontinuouslykept in an environment saturated with fine drops (a mist or aerosol) ofnutrient solution. The method requires no substrate and entails growingplants with their roots suspended in a deep air or growth chamber withthe roots periodically wetted with a fine mist of atomized nutrients.Excellent aeration is the main advantage of aeroponics.

Aeroponic techniques have proved to be commercially successful forpropagation, seed germination, seed potato production, tomatoproduction, leaf crops and micro-greens.

An advantage of aeroponics over hydroponics is that any species ofplants can be grown in a true aeroponic system because the microenvironment of an aeroponic can be finely controlled. The limitation ofhydroponics is that only certain species of plants can survive for solong in water before they become water logged. The advantage ofaeroponics is due to the fact that suspended aeroponic plants receive100% of the available oxygen and CO₂ to the roots zone, stems andleaves, thus accelerating biomass growth and reducing rooting times.

Passive subirrigation, also known as passive hydroponics orsemi-hydroponics, is a method where plants are grown in an inert porousmedium that transports water and fertilizer to the roots by capillaryaction from a separate reservoir as necessary, reducing labor andproviding a constant supply of water to the roots. In the simplestmethod, the pot sits in a shallow solution of fertilizer and water or ona capillary mat saturated with nutrient solution. The various hydroponicmedia available, such as expanded clay and coconut husk, contain moreair space than more traditional potting mixes, delivering increasedoxygen to the roots, which is important in epiphytic plants such asorchids and bromeliads, whose roots are exposed to the air in nature.Additional advantages of passive hydroponics are the reduction of rootrot and the additional ambient humidity provided through evaporation.

Plant nutrients are dissolved in the water used in hydroponics and aremostly in inorganic and ionic form. Primary among the dissolved cations(positively-charged ions) are Ca²⁺ (calcium), Mg²⁺ (magnesium), and K⁺(potassium); the major nutrient anions in nutrient solutions are NO₃ ⁻(nitrate), SO₄ ²⁻ (sulfate), and H₂PO₄ ⁻ (dihydrogen phosphate).

Numerous recipes for hydroponic solutions are available. Many usedifferent combinations of chemicals to reach similar total finalcompositions. Commonly-used chemicals for the macronutrients includepotassium nitrate, calcium nitrate, potassium phosphate, and magnesiumsulfate. Various micro-nutrients are typically added to hydroponicsolutions to supply essential elements; among them are Fe (iron), Mn(manganese), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), B (boron), Cl (chlorine), and Ni(nickel). Chelating agents are sometimes used to keep Fe soluble.Variation of different mixes throughout the plant life cycle, furtheroptimizes its nutritional value.

Plants will change the composition of the nutrient solutions uponcontact by depleting specific nutrients more rapidly than others,removing water from the solution, and altering the pH by excretion ofeither acidity or alkalinity. Care is required not to allow saltconcentrations to become too high, nutrients to become too depleted, orpH to vary from the desired value.

Agricultural Water Use and Soil Wetting

For crop irrigation, optimal water efficiency means minimizing lossesdue to evaporation, runoff or fast vertical penetration of water throughthe soil. An Evaporation pan can be used to determine how much water isrequired to irrigate the land. Flood irrigation, the oldest and mostcommon type of irrigation, is often very uneven in distribution, asparts of a field may receive excess water in order to deliver sufficientquantities to other parts. Overhead irrigation, using center-pivot orlateral-moving sprinklers, gives a much more equal and controlleddistribution pattern, but in extremely dry conditions, much of the watermay evaporate before it reaches the ground. Drip irrigation offers thebest results in delivering water to plant roots with minimal losses.

As changing irrigation systems can be a costly undertaking, conservationefforts often concentrate on maximizing the efficiency of the existingsystem. This may include chiseling compacted soils, creating furrowdikes to prevent runoff, and using soil moisture and rainfall sensors tooptimize irrigation schedules. Water conservation efforts include butare not limited to the following:

Recharge pits, which capture rainwater and runoff and use it to rechargeground water supplies. This helps in the formation of ground water wellsetc. and eventually reduces soil erosion caused due to running water.

Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use, or waste.

A reduction in water use accomplished by implementation of waterconservation or water efficiency measures.

Improved water management practices that reduce or enhance thebeneficial use of water. A water conservation measure is an action,behavioral change, device, technology, or improved design or processimplemented to reduce water loss, waste, or use. Water efficiency is atool of water conservation. That results in more efficient water use andthus reduces water demand. The value and cost-effectiveness of a waterefficiency measure must be evaluated in relation to its effects on theuse and cost of other natural resources (e.g. energy or chemicals).

As discussed above, drip irrigation is now very popular. Unfortunately,water applied via drip irrigation tends to channel to below usefuldepths. The compositions of the instant invention have the surprisingeffect of reducing channeling by causing wetting of treated soil in ahorizontal instead of vertical fashion. This increases the amount ofwater available to the roots of plants and decreases the total amount ofwater that must be used for irrigation leading to water savings andreduced agricultural water consumption. At least 33% and up to 55% lesswater is required.

Infiltration

Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface entersthe soil. Infiltration rate in soil science is a measure of the rate atwhich soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation. It is measured ininches per hour or millimeters per hour. The rate decreases as the soilbecomes saturated. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltrationrate, runoff will usually occur unless there is some physical barrier.It is related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of thenear-surface soil. The rate of infiltration can be measured using aninfiltrometer.

Infiltration is governed by two forces: gravity and capillary action.While smaller pores offer greater resistance to gravity, very smallpores pull water through capillary action in addition to and evenagainst the force of gravity.

The rate of infiltration is affected by soil characteristics includingease of entry, storage capacity, and transmission rate through the soil.The soil texture and structure, vegetation types and cover, watercontent of the soil, soil temperature, and rainfall intensity all play arole in controlling infiltration rate and capacity. For example,coarse-grained sandy soils have large spaces between each grain andallow water to infiltrate quickly. Vegetation creates more porous soilsby both protecting the soil from pounding rainfall, which can closenatural gaps between soil particles, and loosening soil through rootaction. This is why forested areas have the highest infiltration ratesof any vegetative types.

The top layer of leaf litter that is not decomposed protects the soilfrom the pounding action of rain, without this the soil can become farless permeable. In chapparal vegetated areas, the hydrophobic oils inthe succulent leaves can be spread over the soil surface with fire,creating large areas of hydrophobic soil. Other conditions that canlower infiltration rates or block them include dry plant litter thatresists re-wetting, or frost. If soil is saturated at the time of anintense freezing period, the soil can become a concrete frost on whichalmost no infiltration would occur. Over an entire watershed, there arelikely to be gaps in the concrete frost or hydrophobic soil where watercan infiltrate.

Once water has infiltrated the soil it remains in the soil, percolatesdown to the ground water table, or becomes part of the subsurface runoffprocess.

The process of infiltration can continue only if there is room availablefor additional water at the soil surface. The available volume foradditional water in the soil depends on the porosity of the soil and therate at which previously infiltrated water can move away from thesurface through the soil. The maximum rate that water can enter a soilin a given condition is the infiltration capacity. If the arrival of thewater at the soil surface is less than the infiltration capacity, all ofthe water will infiltrate. If rainfall intensity at the soil surfaceoccurs at a rate that exceeds the infiltration capacity, ponding beginsand is followed by runoff over the ground surface, once depressionstorage is filled. This runoff is called Horton overland flow. Theentire hydrologic system of a watershed is sometimes analyzed usinghydrology transport models, mathematical models that considerinfiltration, runoff and channel flow to predict river flow rates andstream water quality.

Infiltration is a component of the general mass balance hydrologicbudget. There are several ways to estimate the volume and/or the rate ofinfiltration of water into a soil. Three excellent estimation methodsare the Green-Ampt method, SCS method, Horton's method, and Darcy's law.

General hydrologic budget. The general hydrologic budget, with all thecomponents, with respect to infiltration F. Given all the othervariables and infiltration is the only unknown, simple algebra solvesthe infiltration question.

F=B _(I) +P−E−T−ET−S−R−I _(A) −B _(O)

where

-   -   F is infiltration, which can be measured as a volume or length;    -   B_(I) is the boundary input, which is essentially the output        watershed from adjacent, directly connected impervious areas;    -   B_(O) is the boundary output, which is also related to surface        runoff, R, depending on where one chooses to define the exit        point or points for the boundary output;    -   P is precipitation;    -   E is evaporation;    -   ET is evapotranspiration;    -   S is the storage through either retention or detention areas;    -   I_(A) is the initial abstraction, which is the short term        surface storage such as puddles or even possibly detention ponds        depending on size;    -   R is surface runoff.        The only note on this method is one must be wise about which        variables to use and which to omit, for doubles can easily be        encountered. An easy example of double counting variables is        when the evaporation, E, and the transpiration, T, are placed in        the equation as well as the evapotranspiration, ET. ET has        included in it T as well as a portion of E.

Green-Ampt. Named for two men; Green and Ampt. The Green-Ampt method ofinfiltration estimation accounts for many variables that other methods,such as Darcy's law, do not. It is a function of the soil suction head,porosity, hydraulic conductivity and time.

${\int_{0}^{F{(t)}}{\frac{1 - {{\psi\Delta}\; \theta}}{F + {{\psi\Delta}\; \theta}}{F}}} = {\int_{0}^{t}{K{t}}}$

where

ψ is wetting front soil suction head;

θ is water content;

K is Hydraulic conductivity;

F is the total volume already infiltrated.

Once integrated, one can easily choose to solve for either volume ofinfiltration or instantaneous infiltration rate:

${F(t)} = {{Kt} + {{{\psi\Delta\theta ln}\left\lbrack {1 + \frac{F(t)}{{\psi\Delta}\; \theta}} \right\rbrack}.}}$

Using this model one can find the volume easily by solving for F(t).However the variable being solved for is in the equation itself so whensolving for this one must set the variable in question to converge onzero, or another appropriate constant. A good first guess for F is Kt.The only note on using this formula is that one must assume that h₀, thewater head or the depth of ponded water above the surface, isnegligible. Using the infiltration volume from this equation one maythen substitute F into the corresponding infiltration rate equationbelow to find the instantaneous infiltration rate at the time, t, F wasmeasured.

${f(t)} = {{K\left\lbrack {\frac{{\psi\Delta}\; \theta}{F(t)} + 1} \right\rbrack}.}$

Horton's equation. Horton's equation is another viable option whenmeasuring ground infiltration rates or volumes. It is an empiricalformula that says that infiltration starts at a constant rate, f₀, andis decreasing exponentially with time, t. After some time when the soilsaturation level reaches a certain value, the rate of infiltration willlevel off to the rate f_(c).

f _(t) =f _(c)+(f ₀ −f _(c))e ^(−kt)

Where

-   -   f_(t) is the infiltration rate at time t;    -   f₀ is the initial infiltration rate or maximum infiltration        rate;    -   f_(c) is the constant or equilibrium infiltration rate after the        soil has been saturated or minimum infiltration rate;    -   k is the decay constant specific to the soil.        The other method of using Horton's equation is as below. It can        be used to find the total volume of infiltration, F, after time        t.

$F_{t} = {{f_{c}t} + {\frac{\left( {f_{0} - f_{c}} \right)}{k}\left( {1 - ^{- {kt}}} \right)}}$

Kostiakov equation. Named after its founder Kostiakov is an empiricalequation which assumes that the intake rate declines over time accordingto a power function.

f(t)=ake ^(a-1)

Where a and k are empirical parameters.The major limitation of this expression is its reliance on the zerofinal intake rate. In most cases the infiltration rate insteadapproaches a finite steady value, which in some cases may occur aftershort periods of time. The Kostiakov-Lewis variant, also known as the“Modified Kostiakov” equation corrects for this by adding a steadyintake term to the original equation.

f(t)=ake ^(a-1) +f ₀

in integrated form the cumulative volume is expressed as:

F(t)=kt ^(a) +f ₀ t

Where

f₀ approximates, but does not necessarily equate to the finalinfiltration rate of the soil.

Darcy's law. This method used for infiltration is using a simplifiedversion of Darcy's law. In this model the ponded water is assumed to beequal to h₀ and the head of dry soil that exists below the depth of thewetting front soil suction head is assumed to be equal to −ψ−L.

$f = {K\left\lbrack \frac{h_{0} - \left( {{- \psi} - L} \right)}{L} \right\rbrack}$

where

h₀ is the depth of ponded water above the ground surface;

K is the hydraulic conductivity;

L is the total depth of subsurface ground in question.

In summary all of these equations should provide a relatively accurateassessment of the infiltration characteristics of the soil in question.

EXAMPLES

Method of application: 2 quarts to 5 gallons of the compositionsdescribed herein are injected, undiluted directly into the dripirrigation line system per acre. Volume calculation will depend on

1. Gallons of water per acre being applied

2. Pressure levels of nematodes and phytophthora expectations

3. Frequency of repeat applications

Frequency of application: Ideally 3 to 5 days before planting. If thisis not possible, then 10-14 days after planting. Repeat 3 to 5 weeksafter planting and thereafter only if needed.

The compositions disclosed herein may have additional nutrients addedfrom time to time by the manufacturer.

In such events the composition will be at 66.66% strength with thenutrients included in the 33.3% of the formula.

In such cases the application volume will be increased by 50%.

1) A method of killing plant pests selected from the group consisting ofNematodes, Phytophthora, Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia,Erwinia and Verticillium comprising: a) selecting soil in need oftreatment; b) applying an effective amount of a composition comprisingone or more surfactants and one or more high terpene containing oils tothe soil in need of treatment; to thereby kill said plant pests selectedfrom the group consisting of Nematodes, Phytophthora, Fusarium, Pythium,Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Erwinia and Verticillium in the soil selectedfor treatment. 2) The method of claim 1, wherein said selection stepcomprises identifying soil containing any one of said pests present inan amount sufficient to harm or reduce the growth of a plant growing insaid soil. 3) The method of claim 1, wherein any one of said pests ispresent in an amount sufficient to reduce the yield of said plant. 4)The method of claim 1, wherein a prior planting in said soil resulted inthe determination that any one of said pests are present in the soil inan amount sufficient to harm or reduce the growth of plants grown insaid soil. 5) The method of claim 1, wherein said plant pest isPhytophthora. 6) The method of claim 1, wherein said plant pest isroot-knot nematode. 7) The method of claim 1, wherein said compositionis applied via drip irrigation. 8) The method of claim 1, wherein saidcomposition is applied via sprinkler irrigation. 9) The method of claim1, wherein said application is conducted prior to planting. 10) Themethod of claim 1, wherein said application is conducted after planting.11) The method of claim 1, wherein said one or more high terpenecontaining oils is a citrus oil. 12) The method of claim 1, wherein saidone or more high terpene containing oils is selected from the groupconsisting of orange oil, lemon oil, lime oil, grapefruit oil andtangerine oil. 13) The method of claim 1, wherein said compositionfurther comprises borax. 14) The method of claim 1, wherein saidcomposition further comprises a fertilizer. 15) The method of claim 1,wherein said composition further comprises micro-nutrients. 16) Themethod of claim 1, wherein said water further comprises propyleneglycol. 17) The method of claim 1, wherein said water further comprisessodium laureth sulfate. 18) The method of claim 1, wherein said waterfurther comprises secondary alcohol ethoxylate. 19) The method of claim1, wherein said water further comprises urea. 20) The method of claim 1,wherein said water further comprises ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid(EDTA). 21) The method of claim 1, wherein said water further comprisesmethyl paraben. 22) The method of claim 1, wherein said water furthercomprises ethyl alcohol. 23) The method of claim 1, wherein saidcomposition further comprises an insecticide, fungicide, herbicide,nematicide or acaricide. 24) A method for increasing wetted soil volumeavailable for water uptake by plant roots comprising: a) selecting soilin need of treatment; b) applying an effective amount of a compositioncomprising one or more surfactants and one or more high terpene basedoils to the soil in need of treatment; to thereby increase wetted soilvolume available for water uptake by plant roots in the soil selectedfor treatment compared to untreated soil. 25) The method of claim 24,wherein the lateral movement of water in said soil is increased comparedto the lateral movement of water in soil that has not been subjected tosaid treatment. 26) The method of claim 24, wherein said treatmentincreases the amount of water available to a plant growing in said soilby increasing the amount of water in the root zone of said plantcompared to soil that has not been subjected to said treatment. 27) Themethod of claim 24, wherein said treated soil has at least 33% morewetted soil volume available for water uptake by the plant rootscompared to untreated soil. 28) The method of claim 24, wherein saidtreated soil has at least a 25% more wetted soil volume available forwater uptake by the plant roots compared to untreated soil. 29) Themethod of claim 24, wherein said composition is applied via dripirrigation. 30) The method of claim 24, wherein said composition isapplied via sprinkler irrigation. 31) The method of claim 24, whereinsaid application is conducted prior to planting. 32) The method of claim24, wherein said application is conducted after planting. 33) The methodof claim 24, wherein said one or more high terpene containing oils is acitrus oil. 34) The method of claim 24, wherein said one or more highterpene containing oils is selected from the group consisting of orangeoil, lemon oil, lime oil, grapefruit oil and tangerine oil. 35) Themethod of claim 24, wherein said composition further comprises borax.36) The method of claim 24, wherein said composition further comprises afertilizer. 37) The method of claim 24, wherein said composition furthercomprises micro-nutrients. 38) The method of claim 24, wherein saidwater further comprises propylene glycol. 39) The method of claim 24,wherein said water further comprises sodium laureth sulfate. 40) Themethod of claim 24, wherein said water further comprises secondaryalcohol ethoxylate. 41) The method of claim 24, wherein said waterfurther comprises urea. 42) The method of claim 24, wherein said waterfurther comprises ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid (EDTA). 43) Themethod of claim 24, wherein said water further comprises methyl paraben.44) The method of claim 24, wherein said water further comprises ethylalcohol. 45) The method of claim 24, wherein said composition furthercomprises an insecticide, fungicide, herbicide, nematicide or acaricide.46) A method comprising the steps of: a) providing a concentratecomprising one or more surfactants and one or more high terpenecontaining oils; b) injecting said concentrate into an irrigation systemto thereby dilute said concentrate; c) applying said diluted concentrateto soil via said irrigation system. 47) The method of claim 46, whereinsaid irrigation system is a drip irrigation system. 48) The method ofclaim 46, wherein said irrigation system is a sprinkler irrigationsystem. 49) The method of claim 46 wherein said diluted concentrate isapplied to the soil prior to planting. 50) The method of claim 46,wherein said diluted concentrate is applied to the soil after planting.51) The method of claim 46, wherein said concentrate is applied at arate of between about 2 quarts to about 5 gallons per acre. 52) Themethod of claim 46, wherein said high terpene containing oil is a citrusoil. 53) The method of claim 46, wherein said citrus oil is selectedfrom the group consisting of orange oil, lemon oil, lime oil, grapefruitoil and tangerine oil. 54) The method of claim 46, wherein said waterfurther comprises fertilizer. 55) The method of claim 46, wherein saidwater further comprises micro-nutrients. 56) The method of claim 46,wherein said water further comprises borax. 57) The method of claim 46,wherein said water further comprises propylene glycol. 58) The method ofclaim 46, wherein said water further comprises sodium laureth sulfate.59) The method of claim 46, wherein said water further comprisessecondary alcohol ethoxylate. 60) The method of claim 46, wherein saidwater further comprises urea. 61) The method of claim 46, wherein saidwater further comprises ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid (EDTA). 62) Themethod of claim 46, wherein said water further comprises methyl paraben.63) The method of claim 46, wherein said water further comprises ethylalcohol. 64) An irrigation system wherein the water in said irrigationsystem comprises one or more surfactants and one or more high terpenecontaining oils. 65) The irrigation system of claim 64, wherein saidirrigation system is a drip irrigation system. 66) The irrigation systemof claim 64, wherein said irrigation system is a sprinkler irrigationsystem. 67) The irrigation system of claim 62, wherein said water isdelivered directly to soil. 68) The irrigation system of claim 64,wherein said water is delivered to soil prior to planting. 69) Theirrigation system of claim 64, wherein said water is delivered to soilafter planting. 70) The irrigation system of claim 64, wherein saidplanting comprises transgenic plants. 71) The irrigation system of claim64, wherein said planting comprises non-transgenic plants. 72) Theirrigation system of claim 64, wherein said high terpene containing oilis a citrus oil. 73) The irrigation system of claim 64, wherein saidcitrus oil is selected from the group consisting of orange oil, lemonoil, lime oil, grapefruit oil and tangerine oil. 74) The irrigationsystem of claim 64, wherein said water further comprises fertilizer. 75)The irrigation system of claim 64, wherein said water further comprisesmicro-nutrients. 76) The irrigation system of claim 64, wherein saidwater further comprises borax. 77) The irrigation system of claim 64,wherein said water further comprises propylene glycol. 78) Theirrigation system of claim 64, wherein said water further comprisessodium laureth sulfate. 79) The irrigation system of claim 64, whereinsaid water further comprises secondary alcohol ethoxylate. 80) Theirrigation system of claim 64, wherein said water further comprisesurea. 81) The irrigation system of claim 64, wherein said water furthercomprises ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid (EDTA). 82) The irrigationsystem of claim 64, wherein said water further comprises methyl paraben.83) The irrigation system of claim 64, wherein said water furthercomprises ethyl alcohol. 84) The method of claim 102, wherein saidcomposition further comprises an insecticide, fungicide, herbicide,nematicide or acaricide. 85) A method of increasing uniformity of waterdelivery by the drippers in a drip irrigation system comprising: a)providing a concentrate comprising one or more surfactants and one ormore high terpene containing oils; b) injecting said concentrate into adrip irrigation system to thereby dilute said concentrate; c) applyingsaid diluted concentrate to soil via said drip irrigation system whereinthe uniformity of water delivery in said drip irrigation system isincreased compared to the water delivery of the drip irrigation systemprior to treatment with the concentrate. 86) The method of claim 85,wherein the volume of water delivered by individual drippers in saiddrip irrigation system prior to treatment with said concentrate variesby at least 10% when said drippers are compared to each other. 87) Themethod of claim 85, wherein said variation is at least 20%. 88) Themethod of claim 85, wherein said variation is at least 30%. 89) Themethod of claim 85, wherein said variation is at least 35%. 90) Themethod of claim 85, wherein said one or more high terpene containingoils is a citrus oil. 91) The method of claim 85, wherein said one ormore high terpene containing oils is selected from the group consistingof orange oil, lemon oil, lime oil, grapefruit oil and tangerine oil.92) The method of claim 85, wherein said composition further comprisesborax. 93) The method of claim 85, wherein said composition furthercomprises a fertilizer. 94) The method of claim 85, wherein saidcomposition further comprises micro-nutrients. 95) The method of claim85, wherein said water further comprises propylene glycol. 96) Themethod of claim 85, wherein said water further comprises sodium laurethsulfate. 97) The method of claim 85, wherein said water furthercomprises secondary alcohol ethoxylate. 98) The method of claim 85,wherein said water further comprises urea. 99) The method of claim 85,wherein said water further comprises ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid(EDTA). 100) The method of claim 85, wherein said water furthercomprises methyl paraben. 101) The method of claim 85, wherein saidwater further comprises ethyl alcohol. 102) The method of claim 85,wherein said composition further comprises an insecticide, fungicide,herbicide, nematicide or acaricide. 103) A method of demineralizing adrip irrigation system comprising: a) providing a concentrate comprisingone or more surfactants and one or more high terpene containing oils; b)injecting said concentrate into a drip irrigation system to therebydilute said concentrate; c) applying said diluted concentrate to soilvia said drip irrigation system wherein the drip irrigation systemcontains less mineral deposit or scale compared to the drip irrigationsystem prior to treatment with the concentrate. 104) The method of claim103, wherein the volume of water delivered by individual drippers insaid drip irrigation system prior to treatment with said concentratevaries by at least 10% when said drippers are compared to each other.105) The method of claim 103, wherein said variation is at least 20%.106) The method of claim 103, wherein said variation is at least 30%.107) The method of claim 103, wherein said variation is at least 35%.108) The method of claim 103, wherein said variation is at least 35%.109) The method of claim 103, wherein said method improves the water useefficiency of said drip irrigation system. 110) The method of claim 103,wherein said one or more high terpene containing oils is a citrus oil.111) The method of claim 103, wherein said one or more high terpenecontaining oils is selected from the group consisting of orange oil,lemon oil, lime oil, grapefruit oil and tangerine oil. 112) The methodof claim 103, wherein said composition further comprises borax. 113) Themethod of claim 103, wherein said composition further comprises afertilizer. 114) The method of claim 103, wherein said compositionfurther comprises micro-nutrients. 115) The method of claim 103, whereinsaid water further comprises propylene glycol. 116) The method of claim103, wherein said water further comprises sodium laureth sulfate. 117)The method of claim 103, wherein said water further comprises secondaryalcohol ethoxylate. 118) The method of claim 103, wherein said waterfurther comprises urea. 119) The method of claim 103, wherein said waterfurther comprises ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid (EDTA). 120) Themethod of claim 103, wherein said water further comprises methylparaben. 121) The method of claim 103, wherein said water furthercomprises ethyl alcohol. 122) The method of claim 103, wherein saidcomposition further comprises an insecticide, fungicide, herbicide,nematicide or acaricide.